Child Labour Practices and Holistic Children's Educational Development: The Case of Primary School Pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya

Abstract

Child labour remains a significant challenge in many developing countries, particularly in rural and economically disadvantaged communities, where children often combine schooling with household and income-generating activities. Excessive involvement in labour can negatively affect children's academic performance, social well-being, emotional development, and overall educational outcomes, making it essential to understand its effects to develop effective policy and interventions. This study sought to analyze the influence of domestic work responsibilities on holistic children's educational development among primary school pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya; evaluate the influence of the frequency of engaging in paid labour on holistic children's educational development; determine the effects of daily working hours on the holistic educational development of primary school pupils; assess how the type of work undertaken by children affects their holistic educational development; and examine the role of parental influence on child labour participation and holistic educational development among primary school pupils in Kilifi County, Kenya. The study was guided by Social Learning Theory, Human Capital Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory and adopted a descriptive survey research design using a mixed-methods approach. The target population comprised 3,580 respondents drawn from 120 primary schools in Kilifi County and included 3,288 pupils, 219 head teachers, 66 parents, and 7 sub-county children officers. The study selected a sample of 359 respondents, comprising 187 pupils, 99 parents, 66 head teachers, and 7 sub-county children officers. The study employed stratified random sampling and simple random sampling to select pupils and parents, while purposive sampling was used to select head teachers and sub-county children officers because of their knowledge and experience regarding child labour and children's education. Data were collected using structured questionnaires administered to pupils and parents and semi-structured interview guides administered to head teachers and sub-county children officers. A pilot study confirmed the validity and reliability of the research instruments (overall Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.812). Findings revealed that child labour is widespread, with frequency of paid labour (β = 0.606, p < 0.05) being the strongest predictor of educational development, followed by domestic work responsibilities, type of work, and hours worked. Parental influence had a weaker but statistically significant effect (β = 0.148, p < 0.05). These results suggest that while moderate involvement in work may contribute positively to children’s development, excessive, frequent, and physically demanding labour negatively affects their academic, social, and emotional outcomes. The study concludes that child labour practices significantly influence holistic educational development, with the intensity, frequency, and nature of work being critical determinants. The study recommends stronger enforcement of child labour laws, parental sensitization, and school-based support programmes.